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Question		Answer
loan translation start learning		elements of a word are translated directly into another language, "scena zbrodni" - "crime scene"
/t/ - slash mark start learning		phoneme
[t] square brackets start learning		physical realization of the phoneme
allophone start learning		variations in pronunciation, but the same phoneme
phonology start learning		universal set, same classes of sounds, same patterns of speech
phonology start learning		study of the sound system
phonetics and phonolgy divided into start learning		segmental level, suprasegmental level
segmental level start learning		single sounds and the way they are made)
SUPRASEGMENTAL LEVEL start learning		study of tonal phenomena
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS: start learning		how speech sounds are made or ’articulated’
ACOUSTIC PHONETICS: start learning		physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air
AUDITORY (PERCEPTUAL) PHONETICS: start learning		perception of speech sounds via the air
speech segment start learning		An individual sound that occurs in a language
speech segment start learning		The act of dividing utterances into sounds, morphemes, words and phrases (difference between gray day vs grade A)
ELEMENTS OF ARTICULATORY PHONETICS start learning		1) Organs of speech, 2) Airstream mechanisms, 3) Sounds: consonants and vowels
consonants start learning		restriction or closure in the vocal tract
CRITERA USED TO DESCRIBE CONSONANTS start learning		PLACE OF ARTICULATION, MANNER OF ARTICULATION
PLACE OF ARTICULATION OF CONSONANTS start learning		lips, tongue, palate (place in the vocal tract where the airflow restriction occurs;)
MANNER OF ARTICULATION CONSONANTS start learning		blocked or partially blocked; vocal cords may vibrate or not vibrate;
TWO IMPORTANT CRITERA USED TO DESCRIBE VOWELS: start learning		THE POSITION OF THE TONGUE, THE APERTURE OF LIPS
THE POSITION OF THE TONGUE start learning		high/mid/low; front/central/back
THE APERTURE OF LIPS start learning		rounded or unrounded
PROSODIC OR SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES start learning		LENGTH, PITCH, COMPLEX FEATURE STRESS
American word (pielucha) start learning		diaper
DIACRITICS start learning		additional markings on written symbols
British word (pielucha) start learning		nappy
American word (falbanka) start learning		dust ruffle
British word (falbanka) start learning		valance
AMERICAN ENGLISH VS BRITISH ENGLISH start learning		1) DIFFERENCES IN VOCABULARY, 2) STYLISTIC DIFFERENCES, 3) WRIG THE DATE, 4) DIFFERTINENCES IN SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION
STYLISTIC DIFFERENCES start learning		Americans are more verbose, use more adjectives and more hyperbole, and they love long words
WRITING THE DATE start learning		American English: mm/dd/yyyy, British English: dd/mm/yyyy
signalling (BrE) start learning		signaling (AmE)
colour (BrE) start learning		color (AmE)
theatre (BrE) start learning		theater (AmE)
Dialectology start learning		gathering information about the types of variation, construction of linguistic atlases
linguistic geography start learning		work on the geographic patterns of linguistic variation
ISOGLOSS start learning		geographic boundary that separates areas with dialect differences
DIALECT AREA start learning		geographic region where a particular language variety predominates
DIALECT MAP start learning		a map showing the areas where specific dialectal characteristics occur
DIALECT CONTINUUM start learning		no sharp breaks between one dialect or another
DIALECT CONTINUUM start learning		people that inhabit such areas are often bidialectal
BILINGUALISM start learning		not concern regional variation!!! matter of two distinct and different languages that are spoken in a given country
Individual bilingualism start learning		ability of an individual to speak two languages
Individual bilingualism start learning		person who has acquired proficiency in a second language (often the dominant language of a larger community like education, work and that person is raised in and environment, when the other language is spoken (often minority)
codification start learning		Making official rules for how a language should be used, like spelling, grammar, and pronunciation.
STAGES OF LANGUAGE PLANNING start learning		1) Choosing an official language, 2) codification, 3) elaboration, 4) acceptance
elaboration start learning		Elaboration: Adding new words or grammar rules to a language over time to express new ideas or adapt to changes in society.
LINGUA FRANCA start learning		A common language used for communication between people who speak different native languages.
Different examples of Lingua Franca start learning		English (entire world), French (diplomacy and science), Latin (the Roman Empire and Western Christendom), Greek (Eastern Christendom), Yiddish (Jews)
PIDGIN start learning		A simplified form of language used by people who do not share a common language, often for trade or communication
Characteristic features of pidgin start learning		1) Limited vocabulary, 2) No native speakers, 3) Simplified grammar, 4) Basic structure, 5) Basic vowels, 6) Simple tense, 7) Reduplication: Repeating words or parts of words for emphasis
Example of Pidgin start learning		Tok Pisin, spoken in Papua New Guinea
Creole start learning		A fully developed language that evolves from a pidgin when it becomes the native language
Characteristic features of creole start learning		Native speakers, Development among communities,
Examples of creole start learning		French Creoles in Haiti and Louisiana, English Creoles in Jamaica and Sierra Leone
MORPHOLOGY start learning		study of how words are structured and formed.
Morpheme start learning		This is the smallest unit of meaning or grammatical function in a language
Root (rdzeń) start learning		You can't break it down into smaller pieces, its the same for entire family
Stem (temat słowotwórczy) start learning		the stem is like a flexible version of the root, it can change, depending on word
Free Morphemes (affix) start learning		stand alone as single words, cat," "dog
Bound Morphemes (affix) start learning		cannot stand alone and are typically attached to other forms, prefixes like "un-" in "undo," suffixes like "-er" in "teacher,"
Lexical Morphemes (function) start learning		nouns, verbs, and adjectives, "book," "run
Functional Morphemes (function) start learning		conjunctions and pronouns, "the," "of
Derivational Morphemes start learning		create new words or change the grammatical category of a word, "-er" in "teacher," "-ize" in "organize"
Inflectional Morphemes start learning		change the grammatical structure of word, "-s" in "cats," "-ed" in "walked," "-ing" in "running"
Affixation start learning		method of creating complex words by adding affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes) to roots or stems
Content Words start learning		denote concepts like objects, actions, or attributes, "book," "run
Function Words start learning		serve grammatical functions, "the," "of," "and,
eponyms start learning		Words derived from proper names, "sandwich" from Earl Sandwich
Coinage start learning		Invention of new words, often from commercial products, "nutella", "aspiryn", "Xerox," "Kleenex," "Google"
Borrowing start learning		Adopting words from other languages, "boss" from Dutch, "croissant" from French
Compounding start learning		Creating new words by combining two or more existing words, "blackboard," "waterfall," "sunglasses"
Internal Modification start learning		Changing sounds within words to create new forms, "swam" from "swim," "teeth" from "tooth"
Blends start learning		Creating words by blending parts of two or more words together, "brunch" from "breakfast" and "lunch," "smog" from "smoke" and "fog"
Acronyms start learning		Words formed from the initial letters or parts of other words, "NASA" (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), SAY AS WORD
Clipping start learning		Shortening of words, "ad" from "advertisement," "phone" from "telephone", REMOVING SYLLABLES
Back-Formation start learning		Creating new words by removinng affixes, "doate" from "donation," "edit" from "editor from existing words, mistakenly remove a part of a word
Subtraction start learning		taking away a part of a word (AFFIX!!!) to change it, "happiness," if we take away "-ness," we get "happy
Alphabetism start learning		the first letters of each word in a phrase or name to create a shorter form, SAY LETTER BY LETTER
difference between an alphabetism and acronym start learning		ALPHABETISM - LETTER BY LETTER, ACRONYM - AS WORD
Suppletion start learning		word's different forms don't follow a regular pattern. For example, "go" changes to "went" in the past tense, instead of something like "goed."
syllable words pronounced as words start learning		BENELUX (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg)
Assimilation start learning		When a sound changes to become more like a neighboring sound. For example, "handbag" might be pronounced as "hamdbag"
Dissimilation start learning		When a sound changes to become less like a neighboring sound. For instance, "comfortable" might be pronounced as "comfortaboo"
Epenthesis start learning		Adding an extra sound, typically a vowel, into a word. For example, saying "athlete" as "ath-e-lete" instead of "athlet."
Elision start learning		Dropping a sound or syllable from a word during speech. For instance, "gonna" instead of "going to."
Metathesis start learning		Rearranging the order of sounds or syllables within a word. For example, "ask" being pronounced as "aks.
Gradable antonyms start learning		represent opposite ends of a scale and allow for degrees of comparison, like "hot" and "cold
Complementary antonyms start learning		pairs where having one implies the absence of the other, like "alive" and "dead."
Relational antonyms start learning		pairs where one word describes a relationship with another, like "parent" and "child."
methatesis start learning		order of sounds or letters in a word is switched. For example, "ask" being pronounced as "aks."
Hyponym start learning		word that is more specific than another word, representing a subcategory or type. For example, "rose" is a hyponym of "flower
Homonym start learning		Words that sound or look the same but have different meanings. For example, "bat" (a flying mammal) and "bat" (a sports equipment).
Homophone start learning		Words that sound the same but have different meanings or spellings. For example, "right" (correct) and "write" (to inscribe)
Polysemy start learning		When a single word has multiple related meanings. For example, "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the edge of a river
Metonymy start learning		Using a word to represent something closely related to it. For example, "the White House" referring to the U.S. government.
Retronym start learning		A new term created to distinguish an original concept from a later development. For example, "analog watch" after the invention of digital watches.
The Great Vowel Shif start learning		middle ages, changes in pronounciation, (hus-haus), (wif-waift), (ges-gis)
Changes in early modern English start learning		morphological (loss of endings), syntatics(order, doubl negation), lexical(borrowings from Anglo - Saxons), semantics(broadening, narrowing meaning)
terms from Celts start learning		slogan (battle cry), whiskey (water of life), penguin (white head), rivers and hills
OLD ENGLISH = ANGLO - SAXONS start learning		written using Latin alphabet, supplemented by Germanic runic letters
the influence of the roman empire upon English start learning		minor influence, Roman Britannia, Londiniumt, Leicester, Manchester
the influence of the Latin upon English start learning		master, mass, school - BASIS FOR WRITING SYSTEM
Conceptual meaning start learning		literal or dictionary definition of a word
associative meaning start learning		personal or emotional connections we make with that word based on our experiences
lexicon start learning		mental dictionary where all the words and phrases we know are stored. It's basically the vocabulary of a person or a language.
french start learning		language of upper classes
the earliest writing system start learning		Egypt, Mesopotamia (invented by Sumierians), representative form
cuneifrom start learning		phonetically and semantically functio (sound and object)
the first alphabet start learning		Phoenicians - 22 characters, only consonants
Pinyin start learning		street signs, Roman alphabet

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